Introduction to Indian History

India drives its name from the Indus River where as 'Bharat' mentioned in the Indian constitution owes its origin to the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata who conquered the whole sub-continent and the land was, known as Bharatavarsha (`the sub-continent of Bharata)Human Civilization in Ancient India

India is one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet. The Homonid activity in the sub-continent dates back to over 250,000 years. 
Significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period some 10,000 years ago. The excavation of village Balathal (near Udaipur in Rajasthan), illustrates the antiquity of India's history that dates back to 4000 BC.The oldest evidence of leprosy in India is discovered at Balathal through a 4000 year-old skeleton. It breaks the myth that the disease is known to India from recent past only.



Indus Valley Civilization in Ancient India



Vedic Period in Ancient India
In the 6th century BC, the religious reformers Vardhaman Mahavira (549-477 BC) and Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BC) broke away from mainstream Sanatan Dharma to eventually create their own religions of Jainism and Buddhism.These changes in religion were a part of a wider pattern of social and cultural upheaval which resulted in the formation of city states and the rise of powerful kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Magadha.
Foreign Invasion in Ancient India



Maurya Empire in Ancient India
Sangam Age in Ancient India
The Sangam period refers to south Indian history from 3rd century BC to 4th century AD. Sangam is a Sanskrit word meaning a Congregation and a Council. Madurai city was the hub of activity where two Sangams were organized and academies, poets and scholars gathered there to produce Sangam literature.The first Sangam was organized at Madurai under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. The second Sangam was organized at Kapatpuram again under the chairmanship of Rishi Agastya. The third Sangam was organized at Madurai and it was chaired by 'Nakkirar'. The entire Sangam literature is compiled in 8 books. They are—(1) Narune, (2) Kuruntoge, (3) Aigunuru, (4) Padirupyuttu, (5) Paripadal, (6) Karlittorga, (7) Nedultoge, (8) Purnanuru.The main theme of the Sangam literature is 'Romance' (Shringar) and heroism (Veergatha). Shringar is called as 'Aham' and Veergatha has been called as 'Puram'. Pedinekilkanku is a famous composition of Sangam literature. In the Sangam age, the Tamil Grammar was written in a detailed book, 'Tolakappiyam'. The teachers in the Sangam age were called as Kanakkaters. The students in the Sangam age were called Bhanwan or Pillai.Avey was the family of Sangam age which meant Sabha (assembly). Panchvaram was the assembly of the advisors of the King of Sangam age. Ur was the institution which looked after the city administration.



Gupta Empire (320-550 AD ) in Ancient India
Harshavardhan (590-647 AD) in Gupta Empire
Ancient India Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization in Ancient India


Aryan Civilization in Ancient India



The Hindu religion also evolved at this time and the compilation of the Vedas occurred. Initially the four Vedas were orally passed on from one generation to the other, but later they were written down. The Rig Veda, the main religious and socio-economic text of Hindus was written between 1300 and 1100 BC.
Ancient India Art

Arts in the Indus Valley Civilization



The earliest tradition of rock cut architecture is to be found in the artistic monuments related to Buddhism. The Buddhist art first developed around the 1st century BCduring the Gandhara period and Amaravatiperiods.

Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram
Bronze sculpture


Indian fresco
The evidence of Indian fresco dates back to Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). The early example of fresco art could be found making use ofrock-cut art in natural caves that had overhanging rock decorations.  There are multiple locations of fresco art found dating back to prehistoric times.

Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka
Ajanta Caves

Chola fresco
The first specimen of Chola fresco paintings were discovered at the Brihadisvara temple in 1931.  They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by RajarajaCholan the Great. Researchers say that in Chola fresco a smooth batter of limestone mixture was applied over the stones.
The tradition of fresco art is also found in Kerala mural paintings. The mural paintings are well preserved on the temple walls at Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor and Aymanam and elsewhere.
Folk and Tribal Art

The visual expressions of Folk art also include the wandering nomads, who are exposed to changing landscapes as they travel over the valleys and highlands. They carry with them the experiences and memories of different spaces and their art consists of the transient and dynamic pattern of life. The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads constitute the matrix of folk expression.
Ancient India Language

The earliest language that was spoken in India was Sanskrit. Aryan spoke a simpler tongue, more akin to classical Sanskrit. It was during the time of grammarian Panini (4th century B.C.) that the Sanskrit language reached its classical form. In all probability, Panini based his work on the languages as it was spoken in the North-West of India. His work Asthadhyayi, pre-supposes the work of many earlier grammarians. It was from the time of Panini onwards that the language was calledSamskarta, perfected or refined. 

Pali - Ancient Indian Language
Prakrit - Ancient Indian Language

Even in literature Prakrit came to be used particularly in plays. Sanskrit drama characters were made to speak in formalized Prakrit of various dialects. The women and humbler characters of the plays spoke in Prakrit.  Some plays are composed exclusively in Prakrit and are technically called Jatakas.
Apabhramsa - Ancient Indian Language
Tamil - Ancient Indian Language

Cities of Ancient India The archaeological and historical evidences suggest that there existed an astounding number of town and cities in ancient India with concentrated human settlements. Some of the ancient cities that were prominent in ancient India are mentioned below; Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro The two important cities each had perhaps 35,000 people at their peak period. These cities had features which made them unique included brick and had well-planned streets, pottery drainage ditches, large granaries, and a large bath for ritual cleansing. Ancient India Cities Kalibangan Kalibangan is a town situated in Hanumangarh district of Rajasthan. It’s located on the banks of River Ghaggar. Kalibangan is the third important city of Indus valley civilization. The city had received its name from the innumerable pieces of terracotta bangles that were excavated there. Dholavira Dholavira is an archaeological site in Kutch District of Gujarat that contains ruins of an ancient Indus Valley Civilization. It is one of the five largest Harappan sites. Rupar   Rupar, is a city of Punjab. It is also one of the bigger sites belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization. Rakhigarhi Rakhigarhi is a village in Hisar District in Haryana. It was the site of an extensive city and part of the Indus Valley Civilization. Lothal Lothal in Gujarat is one of the most prominent cities of the Indus valley civilisation. The findings consist of a dock that makes Lothal the world's earliest known port towns. It was a thriving trade centre during  Indus civilization.  Ganeriwala   Ganeriwala is situated on the dry river of  Ghaggar now a part of vast desert. It is spread over 80 hectares and is the largest sites of the Indus Valley Civilization.  It is not excavated yet and is only identified. Aror Aror is located 8 km east of Rohri in present day Sindh, Pakistan. It had served as the ancient capital of Sindh and was once located on the banks of Indus River. The city was once the prime centre of commerce and trade. Agroha Agroha is an ancient town in Hisar district of Haryana. It is an Indus Valley Civilization archeological site. Ancient structures, pot-shards, coins and seals have been found in archaeological excavations there. Kannauj Kannauj, a district of Uttar Pradesh is of  immense historical significance in ancient India. In ancient texts it is described as "a city which raised its head to the skies and which in strength and beauty might boast of being unrivalled."  Bairatis Bairatis is located 52 km north of Jaipur in Rajasthan.  It’s was a celebrated town in ancient India. Sagalais Sagalais, the modern day Sialkot, in  Pakistan, once served as a great centre of trade and commerce. Sravasti Sravasti located in the Gonda district of Uttar Pradesh is associated with Buddhism. This ancient Indian city is known to shelter Buddha for 24 rainy seasons at the Jetvana Gardens. Sitanagaram Sitanagaram is a small ancient site located in the Guntur district in Andhra Pradesh. It was an ancient Vedic City. The place is related to the ancient history of Ramayana during the last Treta Yuga. Hansi Hansi is an ancient city currently in the Hisar district of Haryana. This city is known to possess five gates to enter Delhi where from any of its gates altitude increases gradually as one enters Delhi city. Kumbhojis Kumbhojis is the name of an ancient town located in the Kolhapur district of Maharashtra. Kalpiis Kalpiis is located in Jalaun district of Uttar Pradesh. It is conceived as the birthplace of sage VedVyasa, who authored Mahabharata. Bhinmal Bhinmal is a town in the Jalore district of Rajasthan, once served as the capital of ancient Gujarat. Tamraliptais Tamraliptais identified as Tamluk is yet another ancient city, presently coming under West Bengal. Urayur Urayur in Tamil stands for "the residence" is a city located in Tiruchirappalli district of Tamil Nadu. Dwaraka Dwaraka, the ancient city, is situated in Gujarat. It’s considered in Hindu mythology as the dwelling place of Lord Krishna. Bayana Bayana is a town in Bharatpur district of Rajasthan. It was known in ancient India as Sripatha or Sriprashtha or Shantipura. Chunar Chunar, located in the Mirzapur District of Uttar Pradesh was well-known town in ancient India. Ujjain Ujjain is located on the banks of river Shipra in Madhya Pradesh. The ancient city gained prominence because river Shipra has a important place in Hindu mythology. Osian Osian is an ancient city located 65 km from Jodhpur. It considered as an oasis amidst the desert of Rajasthan. Sopara Sopara- was an ancient port town located in Thane district of Maharashtra. This town flourished from the 3rd century BC to the 9th century AD. The finding of the relics in a stupa and the rock edicts of Ashoka in 1882 prove the importance of this port town. Kurukshetra  Kurukshetra located in Haryana was an important place as the War of Mahabharata was fought here and during the time of war Bhagavad Gita was preached there.  Paithan Paithan is in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. The city was the capital of the Sātavāhana Empire that ruled from 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD. It is one of the few inland towns mentioned in the famous 1st century AD Greek book, Periplus Maris Erytharaei Vallabhi Vallabhi s an ancient city located in Saurashtra in Gujarat. It was the capital of the ancient Maitraka dynasty. Kalinjar Kalinjar is a fortress-city is located in Banda district of Uttar Pradesh. The fortress contains several temples, dating as far back as the Gupta dynasty of the 3rd-5th centuries. It served several of Bundelkhand's ruling dynasties. Tirunelveli Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu is an ancient settlement. It was a seat of rule of the early Pandyas, the medieval and later Cholas, the later Pandyas, the Ma'bar and Tirunelveli sultanates. Ayodhya Ayodhya is situated adjacent to Faizabad city in Uttar Pradesh. It is also known as Saket. This ancient city is believed to be the birthplace of the Lord Vishnu’s avatar Rama, and setting of the epic Ramayana.  Swat Swat is in the present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa region of Pakistan. It is thought to be the probable birthplace of Vajrayana Buddhism. Kausambi Kaushambi is one of the districts of Uttar Pradesh. In ancient India it was the capital of the Vatsa Mahajanapada, one of the 16 such states. Taxila Taxila is a town and an important archaeological site in Rawalpindi; Pakistan. The city dates back to the Gandhara period and contains the ruins of the Gandhāran city of Takshashila which was an important Hindu and Buddhist centre.  Kapilavastu Tilaurakot archaeological site in Nepal is identified as a possible location for Kapilavastu. It is widely accepted that Buddha spent the first 29 years of his life in the vicinity of Kapilavastu. Lumbini Lumbinī is located in the Rupandehi district of Nepal. It is largely regarded as the birth place of  Gautama Buddhha. Kusinagara Kushinagar is a town in Kushinagar district of  Uttar Pradesh. It’s where Gautama Buddha died.  Sarnath Sarnath is located 13 kilometres from  Varanasi, in Uttar Pradesh. It’s where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma, and where the Buddhist Sangha came into existence. Bodh Gaya Bodh Gaya is in the Gaya district of Bihar. It is known as the place where Gautama Buddha is said to have obtained Enlightenment Sankassa Sankassa is now identified to be in Farrukhabad district of Uttar Pradesh. The city came into prominence at the time of Gautama Buddha. King Ashoka developed this place and installed one of his famous Pillars. He also built a stupa and a temple commemorating the visit of the Buddha. Nalanda Nalanda is located in Bihar and was an ancient centre of higher learning from the fifth century AD to 1197 AD. Varanasi Varanasi is a city on the banks of the river Ganga in Uttar Pradesh. Varanasi is the oldest living city on earth. In ancient India it was the city of learning. Scholarly books have been written in the city, including the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas. Mathura Mathura is a city in Uttar Pradesh. It’s  associated with the birthplace of  Lord Krishna.  Mahabharata and Bhagavata Purana epics, tells that Mathura was the capital of the Surasena Kingdom, ruled by Kansa, the maternal uncle of Shri Krishna.  During the ancient India, Mathura was an economic hub as it was located at the junction of important caravan routes. Vaisali Vaishali was an ancient city located in current Vaishali District, Bihar. It was the capital city of the Licchavi, one of the world's first republics during mahajanapada period, in the 6th century BC. It was here the 24th Jain Tirthankara Mahavira was born in 599 BC. At Vaishali, Buddha preached his last sermon before his death in 483 BC. Pataliputra The modern-day Patna was in ancient India known as Pataliputra. It was originally built by Ajatashatru in 490 BC. It became the capital of the ancient Mahājanapadas kingdom of Magadha and served as the seat of power of the Murya and the Gupta empires. Bairat Bairat is in Jaipur district of Rajasthan. Its history goes back to the time of Mahajanapada (kingdom) when it served as the capital of Machcha or Matsya.  It also finds mention in the Mahabharata. Kanyakubja (Kannauj)- Kannauj is in Uttar Pradesh.  Kannauj is an ancient city, in earlier times the capital of emperor Harshavardhan. It was called Calinipaxa during reign of Alexander. HISTORY AND IMPACT OF Indo-Greeks After Alexander the Great, the greed seleukidan dynasty of Persia held on to the trans-Indus region. After seleukos Nikator was defeated by Chanragupta Maurya in 303 B.C. the trans-Indus region was transferred to the Mauryas. In mid third century B.C. the seleukidan rule was ended by two peoples. In Iran the parthiar became independent and their sassanians in 226 A.D. In like manner the greeks of Bactria rose in revolt under the leadership of Diodotus. These Greeks were later known as Indo-Greeks when they gained a foot-hold in the Indian sub-continent. Bactria situated between the Hindu Kush and the oxus, was a fertile region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West. The greek settlement in Bactria began in the 5th century B.C. when Persian emperors settled the Greek exiles in that area. Bactria figured in history with the revolt of diodotus against Antiochus the seleukidan king. This breakaway of Bactria was recnised by the seleukidans when the grandson of Diodotus, Enthymemes. Was given a seleukidan bride in about 200 B.C. About the same time the seleukidan king defeated king subhagasena after crossing the Hindu Kush in 206 B.C. This defeat reveals the unguarded nature of northwestern India. Thus begins the history of Indo-Greeks. The history of the Indo-Greeks is mainly gathered from their coins. This evidence is very often confusion because many kings had identical names. The son of Euthydemos, Demetrios, Conquered modern southern afghanistion and the Makran area he also occupied some parts of Punjab. Then around 175 B.C. the homeland of Bactrians came to be ruled by Eukratides, another branch of the Bactrians. His son Demetrios-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the Indus, he penetrated till kutch. The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the Buddhist treatise the Questions of king Milinda-discussion between menander and the Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena and he ruled the Punjab from C.160 to 140 B.C. Menander not only stabilized his power but extended his frontiers. His coins are to be found in the region extending from Kabul to Mathura near Delhi. He attempted to conquer the Ganges valley but in vain. Probabley he was defeated by the Sungas. After menander one Strato ruled. At that time Bactaria was rule by a different group of Bactrians. Probably Mitrhadates - I of Persia annexed the region of Taxila during the third quarter of the second century B.C. A little later, Antialkidas ruled from Taxila as known from the inscription from besnagar near Bhilsa. This inscription was incised on the order of Heliodoros, who was the envoy of antialkidas in the court of Besnagar. Heliodoros got a monolithic column built in honour of vasudeva. Thus began the Bhakti cult of Vasudeva. The last known greek kings were hippostratos and Hermaeus, the former defeated by moga and the latter by khadphisus. Indo-Greek influence declined from the time Bactria itself was attacked by the nomadic tribes from central Asia, the scythians. The penetration of Indo-Greeks, as well as of sakas pahlavas and Kushana influenced the government, society, religion literature and art of ancient India. The very fact that India absorbed influences of these foreigners speaks for the then youthful nature of Indian civilization. The extent of Greek influence of Indian Civilisation is a most point. Whatever the Greek influence that was felt by India came in the wake of Alexander's invasion of the cast and the settlement of Greeks in the Bactrian region. Alexander himself cannot be regarded as the standard bearer of the heritage of ancient Greece. By the time Alexander and his soldiers marched towards the east the culture of Greece was on the decline hence at the most Alexander and his men could have spread a debased version of the great Geek civilization represented by Socrates, Plato, Phidia, Aristotle, Sophocles, Pythagoras and others. Despite the fact that Alexander and his men could not be the true torch bearers of Greek culture to the east, the traces of Greek influence could be definitely found on India civilization. To begin with, the invasion of Alexander left very little imprint on Indian civilization. Indian rulers did not adopt the military tactics of Alexander, but continued to rely on their forefold organization. Although the region that was beyond the Hindu Kush in the Mauryan period was definitely in close contact with whatever the Greek influence that was there, the Greek influence was not felt in the interior of India. Probably the use of stone in buildings and sculptures by the Mauryas was inspired by the Greek practice of working in stone. Columns of the Ionic order were definitely used in the buildings of Taxila. To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title e like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek, during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work. Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the inscription of the Karle caves. The Greek mode of wearing hair and the habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards. Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra. Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks. In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters' art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers. Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of die-cutting, the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks. Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and the reverse. Secondly, the curious open air theatre that came into being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced by the Greek model, Thridly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly tone author, the terracottas of toys and plaques were all influenced by the Greeks. In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer, Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley. Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans. But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek dieities were incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods. All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gangdhara sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the vasudeva cult). MUGHAL DYNASTY मुगल राजवंश Babur (AD 1526-1530): बाबर (1526-1530 ईसवीं): Birth:1483,Fargana(Afganistan) जन्म: 1483, फरगना (अफगानिस्तान) Father:Umer sheikh Mirja पिता: उमर शेख मिर्जा Mother:Kutlug nigar( Mangol) माता: कुतलूग निगार (मंगोल) Facts: तथ्य: -Founder of Mughal empire मुगल वंश के संस्थापक -Introduced gunpowder in India भारत में बारूद का पदार्पण करने वाला प्रथम व्यक्ति -He wrote Tuzuk-i-Baburi (Autobiography of Babur) in the Turkish language. उन्होंने तुर्की भाषा में तुज़ुक-ए-बाबुरी (बाबर की आत्मकथा) लिखी। -Babur declared Jehad and adopted the title, Ghazi(After the Khanva War) बाबर ने जेहाद की घोषणा की और गाज़ी की उपाधि धारण की (खानवा युद्ध के बाद) -According to  Tuzuk-i-Baburi, Babur Died in 1530 in Lahore and buried at Aram Bagh (Agra). तुज़ुक-ए-बाबुरी के अनुसार, लाहौर में 1530 में बाबर की मृत्यु हो गई और उसे आराम बाग (आगरा) में दफनाया गया। -Later his body was taken to Afghanistan (Kabul). उसके शरीर को अफगानिस्तान (काबुल) ले जाया गया था। Battles: लड़ाई: -Defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in the First Battle of Panipat (AD 1526) पानीपत की पहली लड़ाई में इब्राहिम लोदी को पराजित किया (1526 ईसवीं) -Defeated Rana Sanga (Sangram Singh) at Battle of Khanwa (AD 1527) खानवा की लड़ाई में राणा संगा (संग्राम सिंह) को पराजित किया (1527 ईसवीं) -Defeated Medini Rai of Chanderi at Battle of Chanderi (AD 1528) चंदेरी की लड़ाई में चंदेरी के मेदिनी राय को पराजित किया(1528 ईसवीं) -Defeated Mahmud Lodi at Battle of Ghagra (AD 1529) (Last war of the Babur) घाघरा की लड़ाई में महमूद लोदी को पराजित किया (1529 ईसवीं) (बाबर का अंतिम युद्ध) Humayun (AD 1530-1556) हुमायूं (1530-1556 ईसवीं) Born:6 March 1508,Kabul (present-day Afghanistan) जन्म: 6 मार्च 1508, काबुल (वर्तमान में अफगानिस्तान में स्थित ) Father:Babur पिता: बाबर Mother:Maham Begum माता: माहम बेगम Died:27 January 1556 (aged 47),Delhi मृत्यु: 27 जनवरी 1556 (47 वर्ष की आयु में), दिल्ली Facts: तथ्य: -Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital. अपनी दूसरी राजधानी दिल्ली में दीनपनाह का निर्माण किया -Humayun passed 15 years in exile हुमायूं ने 15 वर्ष निर्वासन में बिताये -Again invaded India in 1555 with the help of his officer Bairam Khan. पुनः अपने अधिकारी बैरम खान की सहायता से 1555 में भारत पर आक्रमण किया -Gulbadan Begum, Humayun’s half-sister wrote Humayun-nama(Biography of Humayun). हुमायूं की बहन, गुलबदन बेगम ने हुमायूं-नामा (हुमायूं की जीवनी) लिखी Battles: लड़ाई: Two battles with Sher Shah Suri- शेर शाह सूरी के साथ दो लड़ाई -Battle of Chausa (AD 1539) चौसा की लड़ाई (1539 ईसवीं) -Battle of Kannauj (AD 1540) कन्नौज की लड़ाई (1540 ईसवीं) Akbar (AD 1556-1605) अकबर (1556-1605 ईसवीं) Born:15 October 1542,Umerkot जन्म: 15 अक्टूबर 1542, अमरकोट Father:Humayun पिता: हुमायूं Mother:Hamida Banu Begum माता: हामिदा बानू बेगम Died:27 October 1605 (aged 63),Fatehpur Sikri, Agra मृत्यु: 27 अक्टूबर 1605 (63 वर्ष की आयु में), फतेहपुर सीकरी, आगरा Facts: तथ्य: -Coronated at the young age of 14 by Bairam Khan 14 वर्ष की छोटी आयु में बैराम खां द्वारा राज्याभिषेक -Buland Darwaza was constructed at Fatehpur Sikri after victory over Gujarat in AD 1572. 1572 ईस्वी में गुजरात पर विजय के बाद फतेहपुर सीकरी में बुलंद दरवाजा का निर्माण किया गया था। -Married to Harkha Bai, daughter of Rajput ruler Bharmal राजपूत शासक भारमल की बेटी हरखा बाई से विवाह -Ralph Fitch (in AD 1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court. राल्फ़ फिच (1585 ईसवीं में) अकबर के दरबार में आने वाले पहले अंग्रेज थे। -Abolished Jaziyah (AD 1564) जजिया कर की समाप्ति (1564 ईसवीं) -Believed in Sulh-i-Kul (peace to all) सुलह-ए-कुल में विश्वास (सभी के लिए शांति) -Built Ibadat Khana (Hall of prayer) at Fetehpur Sikri फतेहपुर सिकरी में इबादत खाना (प्रार्थना का हॉल) का निर्माण करवाया -Issued ‘Decree of Infallibility (AD 1579) अभ्रांतता की राज्यादेश जारी किया (1579 ईसवीं) -Formulated religious oder Din-i-Ilahi (AD 1582) धार्मिक संहिता दीन-ए-इलाही शुरू की (1582 ईसवीं में) -Land revenue system was called Todar Mal Bandobast or Zabti System measurement of land, classification of land and fixation of rent भूराजस्व प्रणाली को टोडर मल बंदोबस्त या ज़ाबती प्रणाली कहा जाता था, भूमि का वर्गीकरण और लगान का निर्धारण किया गया -Introduced Mansabdari System (holder of rank) to organise nobility and army. अधिकारीयों और सेना को संगठित करने के लिए मनसबदारी प्रथा (रैंक धारक) की शुरुआत की -The Navratnas included Todar Mal, Abul Fazal, Faizi, Birbal, Tansen, Abdur Rahim Khana-i-Khana, Mullah-do-Pyaza, Raja Man Singh and Fakir Aziao-Din. अकबर के नवरत्नों में टोडर मल, अबुल फजल, फैजी, बीरबल, तानसेन, अब्दुर रहीम खाना-ए-खाना, मुल्ला-दो-प्याज़ा, राजा मान सिंह और फकीर अजीआओ-दीन शामिल थे। Battles: लड़ाई: -Defeated Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat (AD 1556) पानीपत की दूसरी लड़ाई में हेमू को हराया (1556 ईसवीं) -Conquered Malwa (AD 1561) defeating Baz Bahadur 1561 में बाज़ बहादुर को हरा कर मालवा को जीता -Followed by-Garh-Katanga (ruled by Rani Durgawati),Chittor (AD 1568), Ranthambhor and Kalinjar (AD 1569), Gujarat (AD 1572), Mewar (Battle of Haldighati, AD 1576 Akbar and Rana Pratap), Kashmir (AD 1586), Sindh (AD 1593) and Asirgarh (AD 1603). इसके बाद गढ़-कटंगा (रानी दुर्गावती द्वारा शासित), चित्तौड (1568 ईसवीं), रणथंभौर और कलिनजर (1569 ईसवीं), गुजरात (1572 ईसवीं), मेवाड़ (हल्दीघाटी की लड़ाई, 1576 ईसवीं अकबर और राणा प्रताप), कश्मीर (1586 ईसवीं), सिंध (1593 ईसवीं) और असिरगढ़ (1603 ईसवीं) के युद्ध शामिल हैं। MUGHAL DYNASTY मुगल राजवंश Jahangir (AD 1605-1627)  जहाँगीर (1605-1627 ईसवी) Born:31 August 1569,Fatehpur Sikri जन्म : 31 अगस्त 1569, फतेहपुर सिकरी Father:Akbar पिता : अकबर Mother:Mariam-uz-Zamani माता : मरियम -उज़ -ज़मानी Died:28 October 1627 (aged 58),Rajauri, Rajouri district,Kashmir मृत्यु : 28 अक्टूबर 1627 ( आयु – 58), राजौरी, राजौरी जिला कश्मीर . Facts: / तथ्य  -Executed the fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev. पांचवें सिख गुरु,  गुरु अर्जुन देव का समर्थन किया. -Greatest failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in AD 1622. -AD 1622 में फारस में कंधार की हानि सबसे बड़ी विफलता थी. -Married Mehr-un-Nisa in AD 1611 and conferred the title of Nurjahan on her. – 1611 ईस्वी में मेरिस-अन-निसा ने शादी की और नूरजहां के खिताब को सम्मानित किया. -He established Zanjir-i-Adal at Agra Fort for the seekers of royal justice. उन्होंने शाही न्याय के साधकों के लिए आगरा किले में जंजीर-ए-आदल की स्थापना की. -Captain Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe visited his court. -कैप्टन हॉकिन्स और सर थॉमस रो ने उनकी अदालत का दौरा किया. -Famous painters in his court-Abdul Hassan, Ustad Mansur and Bishandas. – उनके अदालत में प्रसिद्ध चित्रकार-अब्दुल हसन, उस्ताद मंसूर और बिश्नदास थे. -Jahangir had a deep interest in matters relating to arts and culture. -जहांगीर कला और संस्कृति से संबंधित मामलों में गहरी रुचि रखते थे. -He successfully ended an ongoing war with the Rajput principality of Mewar, in 1614. उन्होंने 1614 में मेवार की राजपूत रियासत के साथ एक सतत युद्ध को सफलतापूर्वक समाप्त कर दिया. Battles: / लड़ाई   -Battle of Haldighati : Jehangir and Shakti Singh हल्दीघाटी लड़ाई : जहाँगीर और शक्ति सिंह Shahjahan/ Khurram (AD 1628-1658)  शाहजहाँ /  खुर्रम ( 1628-1658 ईसवी) Born:January 5, 1592, Lahore जन्म : 5 जनवरी, 1592, लाहौर Father: Jahangir पिता : जहाँगीर Mother: princess Manmati माता : रानी मानमती Died: January 22, 1666, Agra मृत्यु : 22 जनवरी 1666, आगरा Facts: / तथ्य  -Mughal emperor of India (1628–58) who built the Taj Mahal. – भारत के मुगल सम्राट (1628-58) जिन्होंने ताजमहल बनवाया था. -The Taj Mahal is the masterpiece of his reign and was erected in memory of the favourite of his three queens, Mumtaz Mahal (the mother of Aurangzeb). – ताजमहल अपने शासनकाल की उत्कृष्ट कृति है और अपनी तीन रानी में से  पसंदीदा मुमताज महल (औरंगजेब की मां) की याद में बनवाया गया था. -Shah Jahan’s reign was notable for successes against the Deccan (peninsular Indian) states. शाहजहाँ का शासन डेक्कन (प्रायद्वीपीय भारतीय) राज्यों के खिलाफ सफलताओं के लिए उल्लेखनीय था. -Shah Jahan transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi in 1648, creating the new city of Shahjahanabad there. -शाहजहां ने 1648 में अपनी राजधानी आगरा से दिल्ली में स्थानांतरित कर, वहां शाहजहांबाद नाम का नए शहर का निर्माण किया था.. -Shah Jahan had an almost insatiable passion for building. – शाहजहां के इमारतों के निर्माण के लिए जुनूनी था. -At his first capital, Agra, he undertook the building of two great mosques, the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) and the Jami Masjid (Great Mosque). – आगरा की अपनी पहली राजधानी में, उन्होंने दो महान मस्जिदों, मोती मस्जिद (पर्ल मस्जिद) और जामा मस्जिद (ग्रेट मस्जिद) बनवाई. -At Delhi, Shah Jahan built a huge fortress-palace complex called the Red Fort as well as another Jama Masjid, which is among the finest mosques in India. – दिल्ली में, शाहजहां ने लाल किले नामक एक विशाल किले-महल परिसर के साथ-साथ एक अन्य जामा मस्जिद बनवाई, जो भारत की बेहतरीन मस्जिदों में से एक है. -In September 1657 Shah Jahān fell ill, precipitating a struggle for succession between his four sons, Dārā Shikōh, Murād Bakhsh, Shah Shujāʿ, and Aurangzeb. सितंबर 1657 में शाहजहां अपने चार बेटों, के उत्तराधिकार  दारा शिकोह, मुराद बखश, शाह शुजा और औरंगजेब के संघर्ष के दौरान बीमार पड़ गए. -The Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in 1658 and strictly confined Shah Jahān in Agra Fort until his death. – औरंगजेब ने 1658 में खुद को सम्राट घोषित कर दिया और उसने शाहजहां को उनकी मृत्यु तक आगरा किले में कैद करके रखा था. – The following monuments were also constructed by Shah Jahan during his rule: – शाहजहां के शासनकाल के दौरान उनके द्वारा निम्नलिखित स्मारकों का निर्माण भी किया गया था: • Red Fort or Lal Quila (Delhi) / लाल किला या लाल किला (दिल्ली) • Sections of the Agra Fort / आगरा किले के वर्ग • Jama Masjid (Delhi)  / जामा मस्जिद (दिल्ली) • Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque (Lahore) / मोती मस्जिद या पर्ल मस्जिद (लाहौर) • Shalimar Gardens (Lahore) / शालीमार गार्डन (लाहौर) • Sections of the Lahore Fort (Lahore) / लाहौर किले (लाहौर) के अनुभाग • Jahangir Mausoleum / जहांगीर मकबरे • Takht-e-Taus तख़्त-ए-ताउस • Shahjahan Mosque (Thatta) / शाहजहां मस्जिद (थट्टा) Aurangzeb (Alamgir) (AD 1658-1707)   औरगजेब (आलमगीर) ( 1658-1707 ईसवी)  Born:4 November 1618,Dahod जन्म : 4 नवम्बर 1618, दाहोद Father:Shah Jahan पिता : शाहजहां Mother : mumtaaz mahal माता : मुमताज़ महल   Died:3 March 1707,Ahmednagar मृत्यु : 3 मार्च 1707, अहमदनगर Facts: तथ्य  Born:4 November 1618,Dahod जन्म : 4 नवम्बर 1618, दाहोद Father:Shah Jahan पिता : शाहजहां Mother : mumtaaz mahal माता : मुमताज़ महल Died:3 March 1707,Ahmednagar मृत्यु : 3 मार्च 1707, अहमदनगर Facts: तथ्य -Aurangzeb became victorious after the brutal war of succession among his brother Dara, Shuja and Murad. -अंगांगजेब अपने भाई दारा, शुजा और मुराद के उत्तराधिकार के क्रूर युद्ध के बाद विजयी हो गए. -Rebellions during his rule – Jat Peasantry at Mathura, Satnami peasantry in Punjab and Bundelas in Bundelkhand. – उनके शासन के दौरान विद्रोह – मथुरा में जाट किसान, पंजाब में सतनामी किसान और बुंदेलखंड में बुंदेल. -The annexation of Marwar in AD 1658 led to a serious rift between Rajput and Mughals after the death of Raja Jaswant Singh. ईसवी 1658 में मारवार के कब्जे से राजा जसवंत सिंह की मौत के बाद राजपूत और मुगलों के बीच गंभीर दरार पड़ गई थी. -Ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by him in AD 1675. – नौवें सिख गुरु, गुरु तेग बहादुर को उनके द्वारा 1675 में निष्पादित किया गया था. -Mughal conquests reached territorial climax during his reign. -मुगल विजय अपने शासनकाल के दौरान क्षेत्रीय विजय प्राप्त हुई. -It stretched from Kashmir in North to Jinji in South, from the Hindukush in West to Chittagong in East. – पूर्व में कश्मीर से दक्षिण में जिन्जी तक, पश्चिम में हिंदुुकुश से पूर्व में चटगांव तक फैला हुआ था. -He was called Darvesh or a Zinda Pir. He forbade Sati. Conquered Bijapur (AD 1686) and Golconda (AD 1687) and reimposed Jaziya in AD 1679. उसे दरवेश या जिंदा पीर कहा जाता था. उन्होंने सती को वर्जित कर दिया. बीजापुर (1686 ईसवी) और गोलकोंडा (1687ईसवी) और 1679 ईसवी में जाजिया पर विजय प्राप्त की. -He built Biwi ka Makbara on the tomb of his queen Rabaud-Durrani at Aurangabad; Moti Masjid within Red Fort, Delhi; and the Jami or Badshahi Mosque at Lahore. उन्होंने औरंगाबाद में अपनी रानी रौबौद-दुर्रानी की मकबरे पर बीवी का मकबरा बनाया; लाल किले के भीतर मोती मस्जिद दिल्ली;  और लाहौर में जामी और बादशाही मस्जिद बनवाई.   Bahadur Shah II(Jafar) (1837-57)    बहादुर शाह II(जफ़र) (1837-57) Born:24 October 1775,Delhi जन्म : 24 अक्टूबर 1775, दिल्ली. Father:Akbar Shah II पिता : अकबर शाह II Mother: Lal Bai माता : लाल बाई  Died: 7 November 1862 (aged 87),Rangoon, British Burma  मृत्यु : 7 नवम्बर 1862 ( आयु 87), रंगून, ब्रिटिश बर्मा. Facts: तथ्य  -Bahadur Shah Zafar, also known as Bahadur Shah II, was the last Mughal emperor of India who reigned from 1837 to 1857 for a period of 20 years. -बहादुर शाह जफर, जिन्हें बहादुर शाह द्वितीय भी कहा जाता है, भारत के आखिरी मुगल सम्राट थे जिन्होंने 2037 की अवधि के लिए 1837 से 1857 तक शासन किया था. -Zafar played a prominent role during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, fighting for India’s independence from British Rule. -जफर ने 1857 के भारतीय विद्रोह के दौरान भारत की स्वतंत्रता के लिए ब्रिटिश शासन से लड़ने के दौरान एक प्रमुख भूमिका निभाई. -He had written a large number of ghazals and his court was home to several Urdu writers of great repute including Mirza Ghalib, Dagh, Mumin, and Zauq. उन्होंने बड़ी संख्या में गजल लिखी थी और उनकी अदालत मिर्जा गालिब, दाघ, मुमिन और जौक सहित महान प्रतिष्ठा के कई उर्दू लेखकों का घर था. THE MAURYAN EMPIRE Sources:- Kautilya’s Arthasastra Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa Megasthenes’ Indica Edicts of Asoka Apart from these the Puranas and the Buddhist literature such as Jatakas provide information on the Mauryas. Chandragupta Maurya (322 – 298 B.C.): Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. He captured Pataliputra from the last ruler of the Nanda dynasty, Dhanananda, in assistance of Kautilya, who was also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta. In 305 B.C., he marched against Selukas Niketar, who was Alexander’s General controlling the northwestern India. Megasthenes was a Greek ambassador in the Chandragupta Maurya’s court. Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son Bindusara. Bindusara (298 – 273 B.C.): Bindusara was called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning slayer of enemies. Taranatha, the Tibetan monk states that Bindusara conquered 16 states comprising ‘the land between the two seas’. The Sangam Tamil literature confirms the Mauryan invasion of the far south. Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king Antiochus I. Bindusara appointed his son Asoka as the governor of Ujjain. Asoka the Great (273 – 232 B.C.): Ashoka acted as Governor of Ujjain and also suppressed a revolt in Taxila during his father Bindusara’s reign. The most important event of Asoka’s reign was his victorious war with Kalinga in 261 B.C. Asoka embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta. He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter Sangamitra. Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. in order to strengthen the Sangha. It was presided over by Moggaliputta Tissa. Note: After the decline of the Mauryan empire Pushyamitra Sunga established the Sunga dynasty. THE MAURYAN EMPIRE Mauryan Administration: The Mauryan state had a well-organized civil service. Kautilya the foremost political theorist of ancient India advocated that the king should take the advice of his ministry in running the administration. Both Kautilya and Megasthanes provided the system of Municipal administration. Mantriparishad- Council of ministers to assist the king in administrative matters. It consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja.  Amatyas- Civil servants to look after the day-to-day administration. Rajukas-  Incharge of the district administration, assisted by Yuktas or subordinate officials. Gramani- Incharge of the village administration. Gopa- Official superior of Gramani and in charge of ten or fifteen villages.  Nagarika- His chief duty was to maintain law and order. Dhamma Mahamatras- To supervise the spread of Dhamma.  Samharta- The chief of the Revenue Department, was in charge of the collection of all revenues of the empire. Adyakshas- To control the retail and wholesale prices of goods and try to ensure their steady supply. Dharmathikarin- The chief justice of the Supreme Court at the capital. Note: Subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts worked under Amatya. Mauryan Army: The Mauryan army was well organized and it was under the control of Senapati.  Megasthenes mentions six boards of five members each to control the six wings of the military. The salaries were paid in cash. Kautilya refers to the salaries of different ranks of military officers. Mauryan Art and Architecture: The use of stone started from the time of Asoka.  The pillars erected by Asoka furnish the finest specimen of the Mauryan art. Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in places like Delhi, Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath. Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most magnificent.  (Note:The Indian government adopted this capital with some modifications as its state emblem.) Asoka built a number of stupas throughout his empire, example is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive dimensions. The caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful pieces of Mauryan architecture.